CHAPTER XVII 

                       On Alliances



1. Times of war and times of peace are equally served by alliances, or 

agreements entered into by the rulers on both sides. As regards their 

subject matter, they may be divided into those which are made with a view to 

the mutual performance of some duty already enjoined by the natural law; and 

those which add something over and above the natural law, or at least give a 

certain precision to those duties, in case they seem indefinite.



2. To the former class belong alliances in which the agreement concerns the 

mere exercise of simple humanity, or abstention from injury. Here too belong 

those by which a mere friendship is confirmed, without the performance of 

anything in particular; or those by which the right of hospitality or trade 

is sanctioned, in so far as it is already required by the natural law.



3. In the latter class, alliances are either equal or unequal. The former of 

these are such as are the same for both parties, that is, when the promises 

of both sides are not only equal, absolutely, or in due proportion to their 

resources, but also on a basis of equality, so that neither party is in an 

inferior position as compared with the other, or subject to the other.



4. Alliances are unequal when the respective performances are unequal, or 

else when one party is in an inferior position. And unequal performances are 

promised, either by the ally of higher rank, or by the lower. The former 

happens when the more powerful promises assistance to the other, without any 

stipulation in return, or promises on a larger scale than the other. The 

second case occurs, if the inferior ally is bound to perform more than he 

receives from the other.



5. Of the requirements exacted of an inferior ally, some involve a 

diminution of his sovereignty; for example, if it has been agreed that the 

inferior ally is not to exercise a certain function of his sovereignty, 

except with the consent of the superior. Some requirements, however, do not 

diminish sovereignty, although they bring with them some temporary burden, 

that is, one which can be disposed of once and for all; for instance, in 

case one party is bound by a treaty of peace to pay the soldiers of the 

other, to make good the expenses of war, to pay a certain sum of money, to 

raze walls, give hostages, surrender ships and arms, and so forth. Even 

permanent burdens do not in all cases diminish sovereignty. Examples are: 

the requirement that one side have the same friends and enemies as the 

other, while the obligation is not reciprocal; or the prohibition to build 

walls at certain places, or to take certain voyages, and so on. Also, if one 

of the allies is bound to show polite deference to the majesty of the other, 

or to pay him a certain amount of reverence, and to acquiesce modestly in 

his derision.



6. Again, both equal and unequal alliances are commonly contracted for 

various reasons. Of the latter those which aim at some permanent combination 

of several states produce the closest form of alliance. But most frequent 

are those which concern help to be furnished in defensive or offensive 

warfare, or the regulation of commerce.



7. There is also a well-known division of alliances into the real and the 

personal. The latter are entered into with a king in reference to his own 

person, and expire with his death. The former are contracted not so much 

with reference to the king or rulers of the people as such, as in the 

interest of that state or kingdom; and they endure even when their authors 

are dead.



8. Connected with alliances are overtures, the proper term for agreements 

entered into by a minister of the supreme power in regard to matters of its 

concern, but without its instructions. The ruler is not indeed bound by 

these, except after he has ratified them; but if the minister has absolutely 

contracted, and ratification has not followed, he must see how he can 

satisfy those who, relying upon his word, have been deceived by agreements 

that are null and void.